Chemokines are chemotactic cytokines that are released by a wide variety of cells to attract macrophages, T cells, eosinophils, basophils and neutrophils to sites of inflammation (reviewed in Schall, Cytokine, 3, 165-183 (1991) and Murphy, Rev. Immun., 12, 593-633 (1994)). There are two classes of chemokines, C-X-C (.alpha.) and C-C (.beta.), depending on whether the first two cysteines are separated by a single amino acid (C-X-C) or are adjacent (C-C). The .alpha.-chemokines, such as interleukin-8 (IL-8), neutrophil-activating protein-2 (NAP-2) and melanoma growth stimulatory activity protein (MGSA) are chemotactic primarily for neutrophils, whereas .beta.-chemokines, such as RANTES, MIP-1.alpha., MIP-1.beta., monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1), MCP-2, MCP-3 and eotaxin are chemotactic for macrophages, T-cells, eosinophils and basophils (Deng, et al., Nature, 381, 661-666 (1996)).
The chemokines bind specific cell-surface receptors belonging to the family of G-protein-coupled seven-transmembrane-domain proteins (reviewed in Horuk, Trends Pharm. Sci., 15,159-165 (1994)) which are termed "chemokine receptors." On binding their cognate ligands, chemokine receptors transduce an intracellular signal though the associated trimeric G protein, resulting in a rapid increase in intracellular calcium concentration. There are at least seven human chemokine receptors that bind or respond to .beta.-chemokines with the following characteristic pattern: CCR-1 (or "CKR-1" or "CC-CKR-1") MIP-1.alpha., MIP-1.beta., MCP-3, RANTES! (Ben-Barruch, et al., J. Biol. Chem., 270, 22123-22128 (1995); Beote, et al, Cell, 72, 415-425 (1993)); CCR-2A and CCR-2B (or "CXR-2A"/"CKR-2A" or "CC-CKR-2A"/"CC-CKR-2A") MCP-1, MCP-3, MCP-4!; CCR-3 (or "CKR-3" or "CC-CKR-3") eotaxin, RANTES, MCP-3! (Combadiere, et al., J. Biol. Chem., 270, 16491-16494 (1995); CCR-4 (or "CKR-4" or "CC-CKR-4") MIP-1.alpha., RANTES, MCP-1! (Power, et al., J. Biol. Chem., 270,19495-19500 (1995)); CCR-5 (or "CKR-5" or "CC-CKR-5") MIP-1.alpha., RANTES, MIP-1.beta.!(Sanson, et al., Biochemistry 36, 3362-3367 (1996)); and the Dufly blood-group antigen RANTES, MCP-1! (Chaudhun, et al., J. Biol. Chem., 269, 7835-7838 (1994)). The .beta.-chemokines include eotaxin, MIP ("macrophage inflammatory protein"), MCP ("monocyte chemoattractant protein") and RANTES ("regulation-upon-activation, normal T expressed and secreted").
Chemokine receptors, such as CCR-1, CCR-2, CCR-2A, CCR-2B, CCR-3, CCR-4, CCR-5, CXCR-3, CXCR-4, have been implicated as being important mediators of inflammatory and immunoregulatory disorders and diseases, including asthma and allergic diseases, as well as autoimmune pathologies such as rheumatoid arthritis and atherosclerosis. For example, the chemokine receptor COR-3 plays a pivotal role in attracting eosinophils to sites of allergic inflammation. Accordingly, agents which modulate chemokine receptors would be useful in such disorders and diseases.
A retrovirus designated human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) is the etiological agent of the complex disease that includes progressive destruction of the immune system (acquired immune deficiency syndrome; AIDS) and degeneration of the central and peripheral nervous system. This virus was previously known as LAV, HTLV-III, or ARV.
Certain compounds have been demonstrated to inhibit the replication of HIV, including soluble CD4 protein and synthetic derivatives (Smith, et al., Science, 238, 1704-1707 (1987)), dextran sulfate, the dyes Direct Yellow 50, Evans Blue, and certain azo dyes (U.S. Pat. No. 5,468,469). Some of these antiviral agents have been shown to act by blocking the binding of gp120, the coat protein of HIV, to its target, the CD4 gyycoprotein of the cell.
Entry of HIV-1 into a target cell requires cell-surface CD4 and additional host cell cofactors. Fusin has been identified as a cofactor required for infection with virus adapted for growth in transformed T-cells, however, fusin does not promote entry of macrophagetropic viruses which are believed to be the key pathogenic strains of HIV in vivo. It has recently been recognized that for efficient entry into target cells, human immunodeficiency viruses require the chemokine receptors CCR-5 and CXCR-4, as well as the primary receptor CD4 (Levy, N. Engl. J. Med., 335(20), 1528-1530 (Nov. 14, 1996). The principal cofactor for entry mediated by the envelope glycoproteins of primary macrophage-trophic strains of HIV-1 is CCR5, a receptor for the .beta.-chemokines RANTES, MIP-1.alpha. and MIP-1.beta. (Deng, et al., Nature, 381, 661-666 (1996)). HIV attaches to the CD4 molecule on cells through a region of its envelope protein, gp120. It is believed that the CD-4 binding site on the gp120 of HIV interacts with the CD4 molecule on the cell surface, and undergoes conformational changes which allow it to bind to another cell-surface receptor, such as CCR5 and/or CXCR-4. This brings the viral envelope closer to the cell surface and allows interaction between gp41 on the viral envelope and a fusion domain on the cell surface, fusion with the cell membrane, and entry of the viral core into the cell. Macrophage-tropic HIV and SIV envelope proteins have been shown to induce a signal through CCR-5 on CD4+ cells resulting in chemotaxis of T cells which may enhance the replication of the virus (Weissman, et al., Nature, 389, 981-985 (1997)). It has been shown that .beta.-chemokine ligands prevent HIV-1 from fusing with the cell (Dragic, et al., Nature, 381, 667-673 (1996)). It has further been demonstrated that a complex of gp120 and soluble CD4 interacts specifically with CCR-5 and inhibits the binding of the natural CCR-5 ligands MIP-1.alpha. and MIP-1.beta. (Wu, et al., Nature, 384, 179-183 (1996); Trkola, et al., Nature, 384,184-187 (1996)).
Humans who are homozygous for mutant CCR-5 receptors which do not serve as co-receptors for HIV-1 in vitro apper to be unusually resistant to HIV-1 infection and are not immunocompromised by the presence of this genetic variant (Nature, 382, 722-725 (1996)). Similarly, an alteration in the CCR-2 gene, CCR2-641, can prevent the onset of full-blown AIDS (Smith, et al., Science, 277, 959-965 (1997). Absence of CCR-5 appears to confer protection from HIV-1 infection (Nature, 382, 668-669 (1996)). An inherited mutation in the gene for CCR5, Delta 32, has been shown to abolish functional expression of the gene and individuals homozygous for the mutation are apparently not susceptible to HIV infection. Other chemokine receptors may be used by some strains of HIV-1 or may be favored by non-sexual routes of transmission. Although most HIV-1 isolates studied to date utilize CCR-5 or fusin, some can use both as well as the related CCR-2B and CCR-3 as co-receptors (Nature Medicine, 2(11), 1240-1243 (1996)). Nevertheless, drugs targeting chemokine receptors may not be unduly compromised by the genetic diversity of HIV-1 (Zhang, et al., Nature, 383, 768 (1996)). The .beta.-chemokine macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC) has been shown to inhibit HIV-1 infection (Pal, et al., Science, 278 (5338), 695-698 (1997). The chemokines RANTES, MIP-1 , MIP-1.beta., vMIP-I, vMIP-II, SDF-1 have also been shown to suppress HIV. A derivative of RANTES, (AOP)-RANTES, is a subnanomolar antagonist of CCR-5 function in monocytes (Simmons, et al., Science, 276, 276-279 (1997)). Monoclonal antibodies to CCR-5 have been reported to block infection of cells by HIV in vitro. Accordingly, an agent which could block chemokine receptors in humans who possess normal chemokine receptors should prevent infection in healthy individuals and slow or halt viral progression in infected patients (see Science, 275, 1261-1264 (1997)). By focusing on the host's cellular immune response to HIV infection, better therapies towards all subtypes of HIV may be provided. These results indicate that inhibition of chemokine receptors presents a viable method for the prevention or treatment of infection by HIV V and the prevention or treatment of AIDS.
The peptides eotaxin, RANTES, MIP-1.alpha., MIP-1.beta., MCP-1, and MCP-3 are known to bind to chemokine receptors. As noted above, the inhibitors of HIV-1 replication present in supernatants of CD8+ T cells have been characterized as the .beta.-chemokines RANTES, MIP-1.alpha. and MIP-1.beta.. PCT Patent Publications WO 94/17045 (published Aug. 4, 1994), WO 94/29309 (published Dec. 22, 1994), and WO 96/10568 (published Apr. 11, 1996) disclose certain azacycles as tachykinin antagonists.